The law students of the Radical University: Parish A. Cummings

P. A. Cummings, ca. 1897
Buncombe County Library Special Collections

Parish Alexander Cummings (b. March 1, 1846; d. July 8, 1929)

New York.  White.
Occupation: lawyer, merchant.
Father's occupation: merchant, preacher, professor, teacher.

Parish (or Parry) A. Cummings was born on March 1, 1846 in Wellsville, New York to Anson W. and Florilla Alexander Cummings. Both parents were from New York, although Anson had been raised in Canada. Anson is described in greater detail in his own entry. 

At the time of Parish's birth, Anson was working as a Methodist Episcopal minister in Fairfield, New York. However, later that year the family moved to Lebanon, Illinois so that Anson could assume a professorship at McKendree College. 

Parish's mother died when he was six years old (in 1852). The next year Anson married Isabelle, a widow. Isabelle ultimately gave birth to Parish's three half-brothers Charles W., Francis, and Olin. They are described in separate entries.

In 1853, the Cummings family left Illinois for the south. The family may have briefly lived in Missouri (records are unclear), and they spent a year in Rogersville, Tennessee, but around 1854, they settled in Asheville, North Carolina. There the father served as principal of the Holston Conference Female College. 

Parish was fifteen years old when the Civil War broke out. He enlisted in the Confederate army around the time he turned eighteen (the age limit for enlistment). He served in Company F of the 14th Battalion, North Carolina Cavalry from February 1, 1864 to June 30, 1864. He began as a private and was promoted to quartermaster sergeant by the end of his enlistment. 

After the Civil War (in fall 1866), the Cummings family moved to Spartanburg, South Carolina. There Parish worked as a merchant, possibly helping run his father's business. He also attended Wofford College and graduated with an A.B. degree in 1869.

The Cummings family moved a third time in the summer of 1872. They moved to Columbia because the father Anson was elected professor at the University of South Carolina. Parish enrolled as a law student at the university for the 1872-73 academic year. He graduated with an LL.D. degree in 1873. He was one of the last students to graduate before the racial integration of the university.

After Reconstruction, most of the Cummings family left the south and moved to New York state. However, Parish remained behind. By 1879, he had returned to Asheville, North Carolina and received a license to practice law in the state. He remained in Asheville, working as a lawyer, for the next two decades, until around 1896. He served as deputy clerk for the federal court in 1885. 

In Asheville, Parish was active in city and county affairs. He was especially active in the Republican party. His support for Republicanism is especially notable as he had fought for the Confederacy. Despite his political beliefs, Parish appears to have been proud of his army service as he participated in Confederate veterans events. For example, in 1926 (when he was eighty years old), he traveled from his home in Virginia to Alabama to participate in the United Confederate Reunion.

Shortly after returning to North Carolina (in October 1879), Parish became editor for the Republican newspaper the Madison County News. The newspaper was based in the town of Marshal, and it was the first paper to serve Madison county (a county neighboring Asheville's county).

Parish ran for elected office in 1886. That year he was the Republican candidate for superior court judge for the 12th district (the district containing Asheville). He lost by a large margin (246 votes to 1192) to the Democratic candidate J. H. Merrimon. Parish's loss was representative of the elections that year. North Carolina Republicans suffered a crushing electoral defeat that year, failing to win a single election. 

Parish also served as a delegate to the county Republican convention, for example in 1890 and 1896.

During the rise of Populism in the 1890s, Parish supported fusion between Republicans and Populists. For example, at an 1896 meeting of the local Republican club, he proposed a resolution inviting North Carolina Populists to cooperate with Republicans in the 1896 election. In general, many Asheville Republicans supported fusion as a way to challenge Democratic political power. 

Beyond his work in politics, Parish was active in the Northern Settlers Immigration Society. The society promoted immigration to North Carolina by northerners. Parish served as the society's Secretary and Treasurer in 1886. Some insight into Parish's views on northern immigration can gleaned from a resolution he proposed at a 1891 meeting of the Society. He appears to have valued strengthening ties between North Carolina and northern states as a way to stimulate manufacturing and promote regional economic development. His resolution approvingly acknowledged support that had been offered for an upcoming manufacturers' exposition: northern railway lines had offered low excursion rates to participants and "the people of the south" had invited manufacturers from the north. His resolution concluded by emphasizing national unity: "we hope the manufacturers from our state will make such a display as will show . . . that no nation can surpass the American people in manufacturing." 

Parish left North Carolina in the 1898. He left to move to Washington DC because he received an army appointment around the time the Spanish-American War broke out. He remained in DC, working as a lawyer and (in 1901) in the US Census office. 

By 1918, Parish had retired to Richmond, Virginia. He later moved to Danville, Virginia.

In June 1929, Parish began experiencing poor health and was confirmed to his home. His health worsened, and on July 8, he died. He is buried at Riverside Cemetery in Asheville.

Sources

1. 1850; Census Place: Lebanon, St Clair, Illinois; Roll: 126; Page: 505b

2. 1860; Census Place: Asheville, Buncombe, North Carolina; Page: 245

3. 1870; Census Place: Court House, Spartanburg, South Carolina; Roll: M593_1508; Page: 410A

4. 1880; Census Place: Asheville, Buncombe, North Carolina; Roll: 954; Page: 129A; Enumeration District: 034

5. 1900; Census Place: Washington, Washington, District of Columbia; Page: 19; Enumeration District: 0050; FHL microfilm: 1240160

6. 1920; Census Place: Richmond Clay Ward, Richmond (Independent City), Virginia; Roll: T625_1909; Page: 10B; Enumeration District: 72

8. The Alamance Gleaner [Graham, N.C.]. January 14, 1879. p. 3.

9. Compiled Service Records of Confederate Soldiers Who Served in Organizations from the State of North Carolina. Publication Number: M270. National archives catalog id:586957. Record Group: 109. State: North Carolina. Roll: 0045. 

10. Asheville, North Carolina, City Directory, 1896

11. Richmond, Virginia, City Directory, 1918

12. Virginia Department of Health; Richmond, Virginia; Virginia Deaths, 1912-2014. Certificate Number: 1929018594. 

13. Wofford College. Office of the Registrar, "Wofford College Catalogue, 1870-71" (1870). College Catalogues. Paper 9

14. "The 'Madison County News'" The Asheville Weekly Citizen [Asheville,  NC] October 23, 1879. p. 1.

15. "State News." Raleigh News [Raleigh, NC]. October 29, 1879. p. 1.

16. The Semi-Weekly Asheville Citizen [Asheville, NC]. October 31, 1885. p. 1.

17. "A Good Move." Greensboro North State [Greensboro, NC]. April 29, 1886. p. 6.

18. "Republican Candidates." Greensboro North State [Greensboro, NC]. September 23, 1886. p. 4.

19. "The Vote for Judges." The Gastonia Gazette [Gastonia, NC]. November 5, 1886. p. 3.

20. "Republican Convention." Asheville Democrat [Asheville, NC]. AUgust 14, 1890. p. 8.

21. "It Will Bear Good Fruit."Asheville Weekly Citizen [Asheville, NC]. June 4, 1891. p. 7.

22. "From President to Constable." Asheville Weekly Citizen [Asheville, NC] February 14, 1896. p. 1.

23. "Republican Delegates." Asheville Weekly Citizen [Asheville, NC] September 1, 1896.

24. "Around Town." Asheville Weekly Citizen [Asheville, NC] November 29, 1901. p. 2.

25. "Cummings Improving." The Times Dispatch [Richmond, Virginia].May 9, 1923. p. 3.

26. "Veterans Leave for Confederate Reunion." The Bee [Danville,  Virginia]. May 18, 1926. p. 2.

27. The Bee [Danville,  Virginia]. June 26, 1929. p. 2.

Look up P. A. Cummings , " Early Reminiscence of Asheville , ” Asheville Citizen , March 20 , 1923

The law students of the Radical University: Henry A. Fox

Henry A. Fox
From "scm4020" via Ancestory.com

Henry Austin Fox (b. 1852; d. January 21, 1882)
Connecticut.  White.
Occupation: mail agent, printer, post office clerk.
Father's occupation: clergyman, farmer, teacher.

Henry A. Fox was born in Connecticut to Clarinda S. and Henry J. Fox.  Henry J. was originally from England but had immigrated to American to work as a Methodist minister. Henry J's history is discussed in greater detail in his own entry as well as in the entries for Henry A's brothers Gil, Irving, and Clarence.

The Fox family was living in Hartford, Connecticut when Henry A. was born, but within a year, the family had moved to New York City. There the father Henry J. served as a minister at several churches, mostly in Brooklyn. 

In 1857 (when Henry A. was 5 years old), the family left the city and moved to Greene County (in central New York state). The father Henry J. established and ran a school, the Ashland Collegiate Institute. He also purchased a large tract of land and maintained a farm.

The Ashland Institute closed in 1860 after a fire destroyed the school building. The Fox family then returned to New York City and the father Henry J. continued his work as a minister. 

Henry A. enrolled as a student at the College of the City of New York in fall 1867 (when he was fifteen years old). Henry A. was part of the Introductory class. (This was essentially a remedial program. Students took a year of college preparatory work designed to prepare them for freshman college work.) It appears that Henry A. did not continue his studies as he is not listed as a student in subsequent years.

In early 1869, most of the Fox family left New York City to start a farm in upstate South Carolina. Although he was only seventeen, Henry A. remained behind. In 1870, he was living in the town of Southeast (near the border with Connecticut) and working for the Brewster Standard newspaper. 

In 1873, Henry J. and the rest of the family left the upstate and moved to Columbia. Henry A. had rejoined the family there by 1874.

The Fox family had moved to Columbia because the father Henry J. had been elected professor at the University of South Carolina. Henry A. enrolled at the university as a law student on May 5, 1874. He graduated with an LL.D. degree on December 21, 1875.

The year he graduated, Henry A. was admitted to the South Carolina bar. However, he does not appear to have worked as a lawyer. Instead, he began working as an assistant at the university's Preparatory School. The Preparatory School closed in summer 1877 when a newly elected Conservative state legislature shutdown the university. 

After the closure of the university, most of the Fox family moved to Boston, Massachusetts. However, Henry A. was again an outlier: he remained in the south. By 1880, he had moved to Savannah, Georgia and was working for the federal government. He worked as a clerk for the post office and as a railway mail agent. As mail agent, he was assigned the Jacksonville, FL–Charleston, SC railroad line.

Henry A.'s life was tragically cut short in 1882. On January 21, a train that he was riding on collided with another train. Both trains were traveling at full speech, and the mail car that Henry A. was in was wrecked. The collision left several seriously injured and two – including Henry A. – dead. Henry A. was buried in Glenwood Cemetery in Washington DC.

Sources

1. Year: 1860; Census Place: Ashland, Greene, New York; Page: 897.

2. Nineteenth Annual Register of the College of the City of New York, 1867–1868. New York (1867).

2. 1870; Census Place: Southeast, Putnam, New York; Roll: M593_1077; Page: 173B

3. Voter Records. Savannah, Georgia: Research Library & Municipal Archives, City of Savannah, Georgia

3. Census of the state of New York, for 1855. Residence: Brooklyn City, Ward 13, Kings, New York, USA.

4. 1880; Census Place: Savannah, Chatham, Georgia; Roll: 138; Page: 480D; Enumeration District: 026

5. Official Register of the United States, Containing a List of Officers and Employees in the Civil, Military, and Naval Service. Volume 2. (1881).

5. "Railroad Collision." The Watchman and Southron [Sumter, South Carolina]. Janruary 24, 1882. p. 3.  

6. The Newberry Weekly Herald [Newberry, South Carolina]. January 26, 1882. p. 2.

Added Note (September 19, 2021): Thanks to "SCM" for correcting an error regarding Henry's employment in 1870 and informing me of Henry's work for newspapers around Southeast, New York.

The students of the Radical University: Henry Bryan

Henry Drayton Bryan (b. Abt 1860)
South Carolina.  Mulatto.
Occupation: teacher
Father's occupation: servant
Mother's occupation: dressmaker

Henry Bryan was born in South Carolina to Anna and William Bryan. His parents lived in Charleston, where his father worked as a servant and his mother as a dressmaker.

Henry appears in university records in the 1876 University of South Carolina catalogue.  He is a freshman from Charleston following the modern studies track.  The university closed before he finished his degree.

After the closure of the university, he returned to Charleston. After working as a waiter for about a year,  Henry worked as a school teacher. He was still teaching in in Charleston in 1890.

Sources

1). Charleston, South Carolina, City Directory, 1877, 1890

2). 1880; Census Place: Charleston, Charleston, South Carolina; Roll: 1222; Page: 176B

The students of the Radical University: John Isaiah

John Wilson Isaiah (b. Abt. 1856)
South Carolina. Black.  
Occupation: teacher
Father's occupation: laborer

John Isaiah was born in South Carolina.  His father was Samuel Isaiah, and his mother was likely Emma Isaiah.  (Emma is listed as his mother in the 1870 U.S. Census, while Leah is listed in 1880.  Presumably Leah is a second wife.) His father worked as a laborer in Darlington County, South Carolina.

John first appears in university records in the 1876 University of South Carolina catalogue.  He described as a freshman from Florence following the modern studies track.  This university closed before he completed his degree.

In 1880, John was living with his parents and working as a school teacher.

Sources
1). 1870; Census Place: Lang, Darlington, South Carolina; Roll: M593_1493; Page: 509A

2). 1880; Census Place: Florence, Darlington, South Carolina; Roll: 1227; Page: 101B.

The students of the Radical University: Joseph Oliver

Joseph Lawrence Oliver (b. Abt. 1858)
South Carolina.  Mulatto.
Occupation: U.S. Postal Clerk.
Mother's occupation: dressmaker.

Joseph Oliver was born in South Carolina to Emma Jackson Oliver and an unknown father.  His mother was a long-time resident of Columbia who worked as a dressmaker.

Joseph registered at the University of South Carolina on October 5, 1874.  He entered in the sub freshman (or college preparatory) class, but by 1876 he had entered the college class and was following the modern track.  The university closed before he completed his degree.

In 1880, Joseph was living in Columbia and working as a U.S. postal clerk.

Sources
1). 1880; Census Place: Columbia, Richland, South Carolina; Roll: 1238; Page: 213B; Enumeration District: 160

2). Columbia City Directory, 1879.

The students of the Radical University: Samuel Jackson

Samuel Boden Jackson (b. Abt 1856)

Samuel appears in the 1876 University of South Carolina catalogue as a freshman from Sumter following the modern studies track.  This university closed before he completed his degree.

The present author has been unable to further information on Jackson.

Mathematical Work of J. C. Corbin

J. C.  Corbin published mathematical work in the following periodicals.

Barnes' Educational Monthly. This periodical was published by the New York based company A. S. Barnes & Co. The periodical's Mathematical Department was managed by F. P. Matz,  then a professor at Bowdon College (in Georgia). The periodical was first published in November 1874. 

Some issues are listed on WorldCat.

University of Washington holds Vol. 4, No. 1 to Vol. 7, No. 7. Boston College says the periodical was published from Vol 1 (1877) to Vol. 8 (1882).

The School Visitor or The School Visitor: Devoted to Mathematics, Grammar, Notes & Queries, and Examination Questions was published and edited by John S. Royer and Thomas Ewbank, working out of Ansonia, OH. One "Mr. Southwick" managed the Notes & Queries Department. Advertisements in the Mathematical Visitor show that the periodical was being published between 1880 and 1887. Issues were published as Vol. 1, no. 1 (Jan. 3, 1880)-v. 15, no. 4 (Mar. 1894).

The following issues are available online:

• Vol. 7, August 1886, No. 8
• Vol. 7, October 1886, No. 10
• Vol. 8, No. 3
• Vol 8, August 1887, No. 8.
• Vol. 8, No. 10

Volume 12–13 and Volume 16–17 are held by the Ohio History Connection. Oberlin holds Volumes 1 and 2. See WorldCat for more details.

b) Mathematical Gazette published in Erie, Pennsylvania. This is different from the journal published in London. I can't find any more information about this. Artemas Martin was living in Erie and published two of the periodicals listed below. However, this periodical is not mentioned any account of Martin or in lists of 19th century math periodicals.

American Mathematical Monthly

Short Note:

1. Note on elimination. The American Mathematical Monthly 3 (1896), no. 11, 291-292.

Proposed problems:

1. Geometry: 40, The American Mathematical Monthly 2 (1895), no. 5, 156.

2. Arithmetic: 55, The American Mathematical Monthly 2 (1895), no. 9/10, 271.

3. Algebra: 57, The American Mathematical Monthly 2 (1895), no. 9/10, 274.

4. Calculus: 71, The American Mathematical Monthly 5 (1898), no. 2, 61.

5. Algebra: 110, The American Mathematical Monthly 6 (1899), no. 10, 250.

6. Mechanics: 133, The American Mathematical Monthly 8 (1901), no. 11, 288.

7. Arithmetic: 153, The American Mathematical Monthly 9 (1902), no. 1, 27.

8. Geometry: 189, The American Mathematical Monthly 9 (1902), no. 5, 146.

9. Geometry: 327, The American Mathematical Monthly 13 (1907), no. 12, 232.

10. Algebra: 306, The American Mathematical Monthly 15 (1908), no. 11, 214.

Solved problems:

1. Geometry: 39, The American Mathematical Monthly 2 (1895), no. 4, 120.

2. Algebra: 46, The American Mathematical Monthly 2 (1895), no. 9/10, 271.

3. Calculus: 22, The American Mathematical Monthly 2 (1895), no. 11, 320.

4. Arithmetic: 58, The American Mathematical Monthly 3 (1896), no. 5, 140

5. Arithmetic: 59, The American Mathematical Monthly 3 (1896), no. 6/7, 175.

6. Geometry: 58, The American Mathematical Monthly 3 (1896), no. 10, 239–241.

7. Arithmetic 66, The American Mathematical Monthly 3 (1896), no. 12, 301.

8. Arithmetic: 67, The American Mathematical Monthly 3 (1896), no. 12, 301–302.

9. Arithmetic 68, The American Mathematical Monthly 3 (1896), 12, 302.

10. Arithmetic: 69, The American Mathematical Monthly 3 (1896), no. 12, 302.

11. Diophantine analysis: 48, The American Mathematical Monthly 4 (1897), no. 1, 28–29.

12. Arithmetic: 78, The American Mathematical Monthly 4 (1897), no. 5, 147.

13. Mechanics: 46, The American Mathematical Monthly 4 (1897), no. 4, 114–115.

The list of contributors to volume III states that Corbin has a contribution on page 80 of Volume III, but I can't find any such contribution on that page. Maybe this is a typo.

Mathematical Visitor

The Mathematical Visitor was published by Artemas Martin, then based in Erie, PA. The first issue was published in October 1878. Martin published appears to have published about 10 issues. Volume 1 consisted of issues numbered 1 through 6, published between 1878 and 1881. Publication then became irregular. A history of the journal published in the American Mathematical Monthly, Volume 2 consists of issue numbers 1 through 4.

Missing: Volume II, No. 4.

Solved Problem with Solution 

1. Junior Department: 219, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1882, No. 1. pp. 1–2. (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5.)

2. Junior Department: 258, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. p. 34. (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

Solved Problem without Solution 

1. Junior Department: 218, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1882, No. 1. p. 1. (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5.)

2. Junior Department: 220, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1882, No. 1. p. 2. (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5.) (Corbin isn't credited in the problem statement, but he appears in a listing at the end of the journal.)

3. Junior Department: 222, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1882, No. 1. pp. 2-3. (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5.) (Corbin isn't credited in the problem statement, but he appears in a listing at the end of the journal.)

4. Junior Department: 226, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1882, No. 1. p. 5. (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5.)

5. Junior Department: 255, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. p. 255. (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

6. Junior Department: 257, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. pp. 33–34. (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

7. Junior Department: 259, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. p. 34. (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

8. Junior Department: 260, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. pp. 34–36.  (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

9. Junior Department: 261, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. p. 36.  (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

10. Junior Department: 262, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. p. 36.  (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

11. Junior Department: 263, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. pp. 36–37.  (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

12. Junior Department: 264, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. pp. 37–38.  (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

13. Junior Department: 265, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. pp. 38.  (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

14. Junior Department: 268, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. pp. 39–40.  (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

15. Junior Department: 269, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. pp. 40.  (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

16. Junior Department: 270, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. pp. 40.  (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

17. Junior Department: 274, Mathematical Visitor, Vol. II, January 1883, No. 2. pp. 42–43.  (Problem proposed in Vol. I, No. 5 & 6.)

The Mathematical Magazine: A Journal of Elementary Mathematics

Like the Mathematical Visitor, the Mathematical Magazine was founded, edited and published by Artemas Martin. It appears that the magazine was published in two volumes: Volume I and Volume II. A complete set of Volume I (consisting of issues 1–12). It is unclear how many issues in Volume II appeared. Issue  numbers 9 and 10 have been digitized and are online. A history of the magazine in the American Mathematical Monthly indicates that issues in Volume II up to number 12 were published. However, xxx moved to D.C. and said only isolated numbers were published.

Missing: Volume II, No. 1–8, 10–12?

Proposed problems

1. Problem 31. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, July 1882, No. 3. p. 50.

Solved Problems with Solution

1. Problem 13. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, July 1882, No. 3. p. 46.

2. Problem 15. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, July 1882, No. 3. p. 46.

3. Problem 33. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, January 1883, No. 5. p. 78.

4. Problem 54. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, July 1883, No. 7. p. 115.

5. Problem 80. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, April 1884, No. 10. p. 170.

Solved Problems without Solution

1. Problem 14. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, July 1882, No. 3. p. 46. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 49.)

2. Problem 15. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, April 1882, No. 2. p. 34. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 49 of Vol. I, July 1882, No. 3.)

3. Problem 17. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, July 1882, No. 3. p. 47. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 49.)

4. Problem 18. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, July 1882, No. 3. p. 47–48. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 49.)

5. Problem 23. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4. p. 62. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 49 of Vol. I, July 1882, No. 3.)

6. Problem 27. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4. p. 61. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 66 of Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4.)

7. Problem 28. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4. p. 63. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 66 of Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4.)

8. Problem 30. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4. p. 64–65. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 66 of Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4.)

9. Problem 38. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, January 1883, No. 5. p. 80. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 66 of Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4.)

10. Problem 46. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4. p. 67. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 99 of Vol. 1, April 1883, No. 6.)

11. Problem 47. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4. p. 67. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 99 of Vol. 1, April 1883, No. 6.)

12. Problem 48. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4. p. 67. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 99 of Vol. 1, April 1883, No. 6.)

13. Problem 49. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4. p. 67. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 99 of Vol. 1, April 1883, No. 6.)

14. Problem 51. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, October 1882, No. 4. p. 67. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 99 of Vol. 1, April 1883, No. 6.)

15. Problem 69. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I., January 1884, No. 9. p. 148. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 151.)

16. Problem 70. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I., January 1884, No. 9. p. 148. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 151.)

17. Problem 72. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I., January 1884, No. 9. p. 148. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 151.)

18. Problem 73. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I., January 1884, No. 9. p. 149. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 151.)

19. Problem 75. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, April 1884, No. 10. p. 168. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 151 of Vol. I., January 1884, No. 9.)

20. Problem 86. The Mathematical Magazine, Vol. I, October 1884, No. 12. p. 212–213. (Credit given on "List of Contributors" on page 220 of Vol. I, October 1884, No. 12.)

Reconstructing higher education in Arkansas

Arkansas Industrial University
History of the University of Arkansas

Here we'll discuss public higher education in Arkansas during Reconstruction.

Creating higher education in Arkansas

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, education in Arkansas was in an underdeveloped state. There was no state-supported university, and the education that was available was largely offered by private institutions. Higher education was provided by St. Johns' College, Cane Hill College, and Arkansas College. 

In general, Arkansas was largely a frontier state. However, it was developing rapidly as the economy was propelled by cotton planting. From 1850 to 1860, the population roughly doubled, growing from 209,897 to 435,450. Despite the growth, the total population remained small: Arkansas was the second smallest of the states that would make up the Confederacy. Slavery remained relatively underdeveloped. Enslaved workers formed about a quarter of the state population, the lowest percentage within the Confederacy. 

The state only reluctantly seceded from the Union. In response to Lincoln's election, a state convention to debate secession was held in March 1861. However, a proposed ordinance of secession was defeated. Arkansas remained in the Union until May 1861. That month the state convention was reconvened following the Battle of Fort Sumter. Many convention delegates were outraged at Lincoln's call for Arkansas to provide troops to put down the rebellion, and an ordinance of secession was adopted.

Secession placed Arkansas in the front line of the Civil War as it bordered the Union state of Missouri. Federal forces entered the state and achieved major military victory over Confederates in early 1862. For the remainder of the war, the state was an active war zone. Civil government largely broke down. The military took over governing parts of the state while other parts fell into anarchy.

Within the state, organized educational activities largely stopped during the war. However, there were positive developments on the national level. In 1862, Congress passed the Morrill Land-Grant Acts. These acts provided states with funding (through land sales) to build colleges devoted to agriculture and the mechanical arts.

In order receive benefits, state legislatures had to accept the Morrill Acts. This presented a difficulty for Arkansas. By 1864, federal troops had taken control of the state capital of Little Rock, and a loyalist state government had been formed. The newly formed legislature accepted the Acts in May 1864. However, the legal meaning of the legislature's actions was unclear as the Morrill Acts explicitly excluded state that were in rebellion. Thus, in January 1867, after hostilities had come to an end, the state legislature accepted the Acts for a second time.

Despite the acceptance of the Morrill Acts, the Arkansas legislature only made took up the problem of establishing a univeristy in 1868, at the start of Congressional Reconstruction. That year the state adopted a new constitution which set one of legislature's duties to be establishing and maintaining a state univeristy. During the first session (in July 1868) held under constitution, the legislature passed an act creating a public univeristy. The new university was to be governed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction together with a board of trustees appointed by the governor. Its purpose was to instruct students in both the standard liberal arts curriculum as well as agriculture, "the mechanic arts," engineering and military science.

While the legislature created a Board of Trustees charged with creating and running a public university, the trustees had made little progress by 1871, so the legislature revisited the issue. That year a second act creating a public university was passed. The new act revised the previous one and created significant structural changes. For example, the new univeristy was named the "Arkansas Industrial University." Most significantly, the Board structure was changed so that trustees who had been appointed by the governor were now elected by the legislature and the university president was given an ex-officio seat.

The new Board of Trustees was more active than the old one, and it soon began selecting a location for the newly created Arkansas Industrial University. The Board solicited bids from counties and towns and then considered them in September 1871. That month the Board passed a resolution establishing the univeristy in Washington County. After considering a few possible locations within the county, the Board decided to establish the university in the town of Fayetteville, the county seat.

The location of the univeristy

Washington County lies in northwest of the state. At the outbreak of the Civil War, the county was largely populated by small farms run by families engaged in subsistence farming. About 15,000 people resided in the county. Of these, only a small minority (about 2%) were slave-owners. Individual slave-owners owned relatively few slaves: most owned fewer than four, and slaves only made up about a tenth of the county population. However, slave-owners wielded a large amount of economic and political power. They held the majority of the elected positions, for example.

The town of Fayetteville formed a cultural and political center within Arkansas. In addition to being the county seat, it housed Arkansas College, one of the few college in the state. About 1,000 people lived in the Fayetteville. Of these, about a third were enslaved.

Fayetteville experienced tremendous hardship during the Civil War. The town was occupied by federal troops early on (in February 1862) and was site of a battle. By the end of the war, parts of the town were in ruin. Winning the location of the new public univeristy was a way for the town to assert its continued significance in the aftermath of the war.

The opening of the univeristy

Arkansas Industrial Univeristy first opened its doors in January 1872, shortly after the trustees selected Fayetteville for its location. The univeristy began modestly. On the first day of the univeristy, only seven students matriculated. The student population had grown to about one hundred by the end of the year. Most students arrived at the university ill-prepared for college-work, so the courses offered were largely college preparatory courses.

The first students were overwhelming Arkansans, and Fayetteville locals were strongly represented. The first students included the children of prominent county residents, for examples the sons of state Associate Judge Lafayette Gregg. Judge Gregg had served in the state Congress during the Antebellum and fought for the Union during the war. He had played an important role in securing Fayetteville as the location of the new univeristy.

The new students included both men and women. One of the first acts of the trustees had been to declare the university open equally to men and women. Women fully took advantage of the opportunity: six of the first ten college students were women, for example.

The issue of African-American enrollment was more delicate. The trustees took up this issue shortly after the university opened. At a January 1872 meeting, a resolution instructing the Univeristy President to admit both White and African-American students was proposed. However, the resolution was replaced by one stating that the question of African-American enrollment was to be disposed of "as the sound discretion of the Executive Committee may dictate." The Committee evidently decided that African-Americans should be admitted: in an April 1873 address to the Board, the Univeristy President reported that univeristy had open its doors to all "without regard to race, sex or sect."

Despite the President's statement, the university was open to African-Americans only in a perfunctory sense. The number of African-American students was small, and those students were forbidden from attending classes with White students. Instead, they received private tutoring from the University President.

It is unclear how many African-American students actually attended. Reynolds and Thomas' History of the University of Arkansas state that only one student applied for admission. That student is likely James McGahee. McGahee was from Woodruff County. He appears in university records as a scholarship student attending the Preparatory Department for the 1872-73 academic year.

A different estimate is provided by Rothrock in his article "Joseph Carter Corbin and Negro Education in the University of Arkansas.” Rothrock states that, in fact, several African-American students attended the university. He quotes a 1922 letter by the wife of Lucy Gates, the wife of UA's first president, stating that "two or three Negro boys applied for admission." Newspapers from the time reported that two other African-Americans, Mark Wallace Alexander and Isom Washington, received university scholarships for the 1873-74 academic year. However, they are not among the listed students in the university catalogue.

The first faculty

During the university's first semester, classes were taught be three faculty members: Noah P. Gates, Mary Gorton, and Charles H. Leverett. Professor Leverett taught ancient languages, and the other two were responsible for the Normal (or teacher training) Department. A year later the faculty had expanded to include Miss Stanard as an Instructress of the Training School and Henry L. Burnell as Professor of Military Science. The next year Burnell was replaced by Edwin S. Curtis, and the university added Tom L. Thompson as Professor of Chemistry, Nicholas B. Pearce as Professor of Mathematics and Engineering, and W. D. C. Botefuhr as Professor of Music.

The faculty demonstrated regional and political diversity, a remarkable development given the political polarization in Arkansas at the time. Burnell and Curtis had both served in the Union army, while Leverett and Pearce had served the Confederacy. Pearce had even commanded troops that won a major battle early in the war. Of the other faculty members, Gates was from the border state of Kentucky, while Botefuhr, Gorton, and Thompson were from the midwest. (It is not known where Stanard was from.)

Of the faculty, Curtis and Pearce had graduated from the Military Academy at West Point, Leverett from the South Carolina College, Thompson from Iowa State College, and Gorton from Illinois Normal University. Nothing is known about Stanard, but the other three faculty members, Gates, Burnell, and Botefuhr, had not completed a college education, although some had taken college classes. 

The end of Reconstruction

Reconstruction came to an end during the university's third year. The first three years of the university were a time of tremendous chaos in Arkansas state politics. The Republican Party had split into two rival factions, and each contested the other's claim to have won the 1872 gubernatorial election. The dispute culminated in widespread political violence in Little Rock during the summer of 1874. 

The ultimate outcome of the dispute within the Republican Party was that the party was largely removed from political power. During a special session held that summer, the General Assembly called for a constitutional convention. Political restrictions on ex-Confederates had recently lifted, so Conservative Democrats were able to dominate the convention. In October, a new Constitution was approved, a new Democratic governor was elected, and Democratic politicians gained a large majority within the state legislature. 

The end of Reconstruction had surprisingly little impact on the university. The legislature declared all trustee positions to be vacated and created a new Board of Trustees. However, there were no major changes to the faculty and students. For example, despite having fought for the Union, Edwin S. Curtis retained his professorship until 1875 when he came into conflict with other faculty over issues like student discipline. Leverett remained at the university for the next 20 years.

The end of Reconstruction signaled the end of the university's limited efforts toward racial integration. However, those efforts were already being reversed during the last years of Reconstruction. In 1873, the state legislature created the Branch Normal College in Pine Bluff. It was tacitly understood that this college would be for African-Americans and Arkansas Industrial University would be for Whites. For the next seven decades, no African-Americans would attend the university.